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A framework for the development of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as a crop for the future in tropical environments
Introducing a Progressive Approach: Forging the Path towards Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Cultivation in Tropical Environments
Eranga M. Wimalasiri a,b,*, Ebrahim Jahanshiri a,*, Vimbayi G.P. Chimonyo c,
Niluka Kuruppuarachchi d, T.A.S.T.M. Suhairi a, Sayed N. Azam-Ali a, Peter J. Gregory a,e
a Crops for the Future UK, NIAB, 93 Lawrence Weaver Road, Cambridge, England, UK
b Department of Export Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya, Sri Lanka
c CIMMYT-Zimbabwe, 12.5 KM Peg, Mazowe Road, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
d Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
e School of Agriculture, Policy & Development, University of Reading, Earley Gate, Reading, UK
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
AquaCrop
Land suitability assessment
Industrial hemp
Hemp economics
Yield potential
A B S T R A C T
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a multipurpose industrial crop which is mainly cultivated in temperate regions. With
its high potential for economic returns for its seeds and fiber, there is growing interest in cultivating hemp in
many territories including Malaysia and other Asian countries, where its cultivation is currently illegal. To date,
no comprehensive study on the suitability of this crop under Malaysian conditions has been conducted. In this
paper, we propose an assessment framework as a roadmap to develop the hemp industry in Malaysia and possibly
other Asian countries with equatorial climates. This framework includes suitability assessment (climate and soil),
crop modelling (current and future yields under climate change) and economic analysis (net present value (NPV),
NPV benefit (NPVB) and benefit-cost ratio (BCR). The land suitability assessment classified hemp as an adaptable
crop for most of the land in the country. The AquaCrop model, parameterised from secondary data collected from
literature was used in simulations and potential yield mapping. The estimated average potential seed and fiber
yield at six locations between 2010 and 2019 was 1.61 ± 0.25 and 2.78 ± 0.39 t ha–1 respectively. Using five
general circulation model (GCM) simulations, yields under future climates in Malaysia showed an increase in
most of the locations. The highest NPVB of 1641 USD ha–1 (BCR of 1.33) for seed was estimated under current
climate conditions. Yields of 1.38 t ha–1 (seed) and 3.62 t ha–1 (fiber) are the minimum economically feasible
yields with a Benefit-Cost Ratio of 1.00 suggesting a potential for hemp cultivation in comparison to countries
with established hemp industries. The present framework could be used to develop a pathway for adoption of
hemp as a crop for the future in tropical countries.
1. Introduction
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a herbaceous annual plant in the family
Cannabinaceae. It is one of the earliest domesticated plants with more
than 6000 years of history of cultivation supported by archaeological
evidence (Lu and Clarke, 1995). Throughout the development of many
civilizations, hemp played an important role as a multipurpose crop, and
can be considered as a fundamental plant in agriculture (Hesami et al.,
2020; Lavrieux et al., 2013). The species is broadly divided into two
types, mainly according to its usage; industrial hemp and marijuana
(Johnson, 2014), both of which have many established varieties. In-
dustrial hemp, which is low in delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
consists of varieties that are mainly grown for agricultural/ industrial
purposes. Generally, the threshold THC content of industrial hemp is 0.3
%, which varies among territories (Cherney and Small, 2016; Sawler
et al., 2015). Another type of hemp, called marijuana contains psycho-
active varieties that are mainly grown for their higher THC content.
Generally, varieties used for industrial purposes (industrial hemp) are
referred to as ‘hemp’ and those for psychoactive effects as ‘marijuana’.
Hemp is used for food (Clarke and Merlin, 2016), textile fiber
(Johnson, 2014; R´equil´e et al., 2021), medicinal purposes (Danziger and
Bernstein, 2021; Johnson, 2014; Shams et al., 2020), biomass (energy)
(Hanegraaf et al., 1998), paper production (der Werf and Hayo, 1994),
cosmetics (Vogl et al., 2004), pharmaceutical products (Kumar et al.,
* Corresponding authors at: Crops for the Future UK, NIAB, 93 Lawrence Weaver Road, Cambridge,
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A framework for the development of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) as a crop for the future in tropical environments
Introducing a Progressive Approach: Forging the Path towards Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) Cultivation in Tropical Environments
Eranga M. Wimalasiri a,b,*, Ebrahim Jahanshiri a,*, Vimbayi G.P. Chimonyo c,
Niluka Kuruppuarachchi d, T.A.S.T.M. Suhairi a, Sayed N. Azam-Ali a, Peter J. Gregory a,e
a Crops for the Future UK, NIAB, 93 Lawrence Weaver Road, Cambridge, England, UK
b Department of Export Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Sciences, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, Belihuloya, Sri Lanka
c CIMMYT-Zimbabwe, 12.5 KM Peg, Mazowe Road, Mount Pleasant, Harare, Zimbabwe
d Postgraduate Institute of Agriculture, University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka
e School of Agriculture, Policy & Development, University of Reading, Earley Gate, Reading, UK
A R T I C L E I N F O
Keywords:
AquaCrop
Land suitability assessment
Industrial hemp
Hemp economics
Yield potential
A B S T R A C T
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a multipurpose industrial crop which is mainly cultivated in temperate regions. With
its high potential for economic returns for its seeds and fiber, there is growing interest in cultivating hemp in
many territories including Malaysia and other Asian countries, where its cultivation is currently illegal. To date,
no comprehensive study on the suitability of this crop under Malaysian conditions has been conducted. In this
paper, we propose an assessment framework as a roadmap to develop the hemp industry in Malaysia and possibly
other Asian countries with equatorial climates. This framework includes suitability assessment (climate and soil),
crop modelling (current and future yields under climate change) and economic analysis (net present value (NPV),
NPV benefit (NPVB) and benefit-cost ratio (BCR). The land suitability assessment classified hemp as an adaptable
crop for most of the land in the country. The AquaCrop model, parameterised from secondary data collected from
literature was used in simulations and potential yield mapping. The estimated average potential seed and fiber
yield at six locations between 2010 and 2019 was 1.61 ± 0.25 and 2.78 ± 0.39 t ha–1 respectively. Using five
general circulation model (GCM) simulations, yields under future climates in Malaysia showed an increase in
most of the locations. The highest NPVB of 1641 USD ha–1 (BCR of 1.33) for seed was estimated under current
climate conditions. Yields of 1.38 t ha–1 (seed) and 3.62 t ha–1 (fiber) are the minimum economically feasible
yields with a Benefit-Cost Ratio of 1.00 suggesting a potential for hemp cultivation in comparison to countries
with established hemp industries. The present framework could be used to develop a pathway for adoption of
hemp as a crop for the future in tropical countries.
1. Introduction
Hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) is a herbaceous annual plant in the family
Cannabinaceae. It is one of the earliest domesticated plants with more
than 6000 years of history of cultivation supported by archaeological
evidence (Lu and Clarke, 1995). Throughout the development of many
civilizations, hemp played an important role as a multipurpose crop, and
can be considered as a fundamental plant in agriculture (Hesami et al.,
2020; Lavrieux et al., 2013). The species is broadly divided into two
types, mainly according to its usage; industrial hemp and marijuana
(Johnson, 2014), both of which have many established varieties. In-
dustrial hemp, which is low in delta-9 tetrahydrocannabinol (THC)
consists of varieties that are mainly grown for agricultural/ industrial
purposes. Generally, the threshold THC content of industrial hemp is 0.3
%, which varies among territories (Cherney and Small, 2016; Sawler
et al., 2015). Another type of hemp, called marijuana contains psycho-
active varieties that are mainly grown for their higher THC content.
Generally, varieties used for industrial purposes (industrial hemp) are
referred to as ‘hemp’ and those for psychoactive effects as ‘marijuana’.
Hemp is used for food (Clarke and Merlin, 2016), textile fiber
(Johnson, 2014; R´equil´e et al., 2021), medicinal purposes (Danziger and
Bernstein, 2021; Johnson, 2014; Shams et al., 2020), biomass (energy)
(Hanegraaf et al., 1998), paper production (der Werf and Hayo, 1994),
cosmetics (Vogl et al., 2004), pharmaceutical products (Kumar et al.,
* Corresponding authors at: Crops for the Future UK, NIAB, 93 Lawrence Weaver Road, Cambridge,
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